Evaluation of Journal Article: Heijes, C. (2010) Cross-Cultural Perception and Power Dynamics Across Changing Organizational and National Contexts: Curacao and the Netherlands, Human Relations, 64 (5) 653-674.

Evaluation of Journal Article: Heijes, C. (2010) Cross-cultural perception and power dynamics across changing organizational and national contexts: Curacao and the Netherlands, Human Relations, 64 (5) 653-674. Introduction This essay critically evaluates Coen Heijes’s paper on power differences in cross-cultural perception and how power imbalance across diverse organizational and national contexts result in various cross-cultural perception between two particular ethnic groups, namely European Dutch and African Curacaoans.To be more specific, this review is critically discussed for the following parts. First of all, the theoretical framework development is briefly examined from dimensional approach to contextual approach. After that follows the research approaches that Heijes adopted and puts forward the advantages and disadvantages, as well as, considering the limitations of them. Eventually, the potential implications for individuals should be involved and particularly wheth er they positively relates to intercultural working in cross-cultural management.Brief description of the article In this article, Heijes (2010) presents a comparative analysis of cross-cultural perception between European Dutch and African Curacaoans in Netherlands and Curacao respectively, as well as including two organizations namely the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and the police, each of which owns diverse power dynamics. Through using the exploratory case studies, which enable to test the â€Å"emerging findings in wider survey-based research† (Cassell and Symon, 2004, p. 27), the author tends to illustrate how power differences impact on cross-cultural perception. In order to provide more exactly evidence, Heijes applied a set of various methods in collecting data. Most of data were gathered from interviews between Curacaoan and Dutch employees in IRS and police. Moreover, choosing different interviewers was taken into consideration with the purpose of avoiding inter viewer bias; it is mainly due to the fact that ethnic background of the interviewer plays a dominant role in determining the respondents’ answers.After that, it is followed by participant observation to supply further data. Then data were categorized into four groups and based on an iterative process for checking and interpreting the findings. As for findings, from the anthropological perspective, Heijes concluded that cross-cultural perception between two ethnic groups that are relatively similar, that is because the same external background of the two countries and differs due to the internal context of two different organizations.However, the cultural differences were not very much; therefore, the findings indicated that power dynamics plays a crucial role in influencing the cross-cultural perception not only in internal organizational context, but also in external national context. In other words, taking the power dynamics between different groups into consideration is mu ch more essential for determining cross-cultural perception and cooperation than only rely on a value-based approach.Theory and Literature This article based on Hofstede and McSweeney’s theoretical framework for understanding the power dynamics and cross-cultural perception alongside changing organizational and national contexts. Heijes broadly illustrates the dimensional approach, which one of the most acknowledged and comprehensive cultural typologies is that put forward by Hofstede (Chiang, 2005), is â€Å"monolithic and rather static description of national cultures† (Heijes, 2010, p. 653).In spite of widely application and its popularity, it also challenged by â€Å"a more contextual approach based on actual interaction† (Heijes, 2010, p. 654). The literature assists the author in developing theoretical frameworks through quoting â€Å"many methodological and theoretical criticisms† (Chiang, 2005, p. 1545) surrounding the dynamics of cross-cultural p erception. Firstly, in terms of Hofstede‘s framework, Hoecklin (1996) points out that this framework not only enable to analysis national culture, but also especially focus on understanding the effects of cultural differences in organizations.However, due to â€Å"reduce the complexities of culture† (Deschepper et al, 2008, p. 2), Jackson (as sited in Heijes, 2010, p. 654) correctly argues that dimensional approach unable to address the â€Å"dynamics of cross-cultural interaction within the complexity of power relationship†. Furthermore, the methodological flaws of Hofstede’s model are pointed out by McSweeney (2002), whose critique maintains whether culture can affect differences in behaviour between people from diverse countries (Williamson, 2002).Finally, Marrewijk (1999) makes clear that power imbalances might influence on cross-cultural perception, as well as bringing about different behaviour determined by using contextual approach. Having considere d all the arguments above, this exploratory article through using comparative analysis of cross-cultural perception and emphasising on various contexts between different organizations and countries, which own different power dynamics, to demonstrate how power differences impact on cross-cultural perception.Heijes’s critique of dimensional approach is relatively convincing, however, there are some concepts that the author may be overlooked. For instance, power dynamics and cross-cultural perception are relatively important concepts that the author should be explained. Because of power dynamics related to the Hofstede’s dimensional approach, which is very essential for understanding the main idea of this journal. Moreover, power dynamics, that is, are not very easily to observe and even unconscious occasionally (Boonstra and Gravenhorst, 1998). As Gajewska-De Mattos et al. as cited in Heijes, 2010, p. 654) has argued that â€Å"dimensions were non-commensurable with dat a on actual cross-cultural perception†. Research Approach: In order to demonstrate the research question: â€Å"How power differences impact on cross-cultural perception† exactly, the author adopts a comparative analysis of perception alongside â€Å"two changing axes namely external national context and internal organizational context†, both of them within the home countries of Curacaoans and Dutch, and in two specific organizations: the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and the police.According to Yin (2009), the reason why choose case study as research method is that questions tend to explain some present circumstance and acquire â€Å"the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life events† (p. 5). Moreover, the case is well suited to examine â€Å"complex contemporary phenomena† (Ogawa and Malen, 1991, p. 274) in depth and â€Å"within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evi dent† (Yin, 2009, p. 18).The unique advantages of the case study is enable to deal with various evidence namely â€Å"documents, interviews and observations†, which superior to other research methods (Yin, 2009, p. 11). Another advantage can be to provide more opportunities for â€Å"the researchers that they would not have otherwise†, however, the disadvantages of the case study are obviously, that is the results enable to apply to other individuals (Lanthier, 2002). Interviews, as one of the most significant sources of the case study information, removed gender within the organization and treated all espondents as male (Heijes, 2010). In this journal article, the interview started with open-ended questions. These complex and long questions are too difficult for respondents to answer as well as too difficult to gather the information for interviewers due to the fact that the â€Å"respondent fatigue† (Bryman and Bell, 2011). After interview with open-ende d questions, the interviewers moved to semi-structured interviews that â€Å"interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview† (Cohen and Crabtree, 2006).On the other words, the interviewers follow some specific questions that have already prepared and the list of questions needs to be covered during the interview in a particular order. Semi- structured interviews usually last for approximately an hour, which might be in full accordance with that of 80 minutes. Another question about whether should record the content during the interviews or not. A study by Yin shows that â€Å"using recording devices is a matter of personal preference†, moreover, recording can provide more accurate information than any other method (2009, p. 09). But a recording device is not permitted to use in some particular situations. In this journal article, the author employed interviewers who differed not only in gender, but also own diverse ethnic background in order to avoid bias of the interviewers; this is a significant way to improve the degree of accuracy. Besides interviews, participant observation is a special mode of observation that should â€Å"assume a range of roles within a case study situation and actually participate in the events being studied† (Yin, 2009, p. 111).The participant-observation research method has already widely used in anthropological studies in terms of different cultural or social groups, which is suitable for using in this journal article (Becker and Geer, 1957). Moreover, one of the most advantages of participant observation is that some topics may be no way to collect information other than through participant-observation (Yin, 2009). Dewalt (as cited in Kawulich, 2005) rightly points out that it has ability to enhance the quality of the data collection and interpretation. However, the limitation of the participant-observation is much obviously.The researcher must consider the â€Å"gender, ethnicity, class and theoret ical approach†, which may impact on observation, analysis and interpretation (Kawulich, 2005) Findings and Conclusions After the process of data collection and analysis, as for Curacaoan context, Heijes can be confirmed that power dynamics between the two groups plays a significant role in determining the perception. That was concluded from the results of the research that cross-cultural perceptions within the groups are relatively similar, that is mainly due to the fact that they own the same national culture and only influenced by the different contexts.However, in colonial area, the cross-cultural perception was effected by the postcolonial setting as well as the power imbalance. Finally, the findings consistent with the argument, which is power imbalance effects cross-cultural perception, after than lead to different behaviour depending on different contexts. Considering the main findings and the arguments, it can be concluded that these findings are valid.In terms of Dutc h context, the findings illustrate that power dynamics impact on cross-cultural perception not only in organizational contexts but also including the national and postcolonial contexts. That means we should take both aspect of contexts into consideration when determine the relationship between power imbalance and cross-cultural perception. Furthermore, the findings demonstrate that culture contexts are relatively similar between these two groups, and have no impact on the relationship between cross-cultural perception and power dynamics.In the conclusion, Heijes puts forward the limitations of the approach and research method, as the exploratory case studies only pay attention to the effect of power imbalance on perception between two countries as well as within two organizations. Furthermore, the author even recommends further investigating other cases about how power dynamics of postcolonial context impact on cross-cultural perception and how these areas interrelate to each other. Moreover, this research would provide assistance in understanding the significant interrelationship between power dynamics and culture.

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Your Honor, Abigail Williams is nothing but a where who wants to dance with John Proctor, an extremely moral man who had dedicated his life to God, on his wife's grave. The lies that Abigail Williams has cooked up is punishment for John Proctor for taking away her innocence. She is nothing but a where who lusts for John Proctor. Vengeance is running through Salem, Your Honor, and people who have been falsely accused will die; you will have their blood on their hands, Judge Detonator. Will you be able to sleep at night knowing you signed the death warrants of innocent people? Your gavel ill be stained blood-red.Can you live with your conscience? Your Excellency, the cries of witchcraft are the same cries as a whore's vengeance fuelled by lust. People with names whiter than white within the community of Salem are having their good name soiled and blackened. Believe that if more people are accused by whore's like Abigail Williams and you continue to devour their lies, your soul will bec ome blackened and guilt-ridden. Judge Detonator, permit me to proceed, ninety-one people have signed a testament saying that Elizabeth, Martha, and Rebecca are good respected Christian women who loud never compact with Lucifer.Should ninety-one people lie? Think not. You cannot ignore the people of Salem any longer. You cannot ignore their good opinion or soon there will be no-one left in Salem who you think is somehow is working for the devil. The people of Salem must have known this woman all their lives; if they had compacted with Lucifer, would they have concealed it from their closest friends? If the devil had been working here, why has there not been any sign of the Devil before. You believe the lies Abigail Williams is feeding you with seemingly no care for the normal people f Salem.Is there another reason why you are not taking the testament of the god-fearing people of Salem? Seriously? I've noticed you sweat like a stallion whenever Abigail Williams is near. She is manipul ative , Judge Detonator and you must not fall in her trap. Will you take the words of one child, who is intoxicated by power, over the opinions of ninety-one upstanding members of the community? The ball is now in your court, Judge Detonator. The blood of these respected Christian women will be on your hands, Your Honor. Furthermore, after witnessing Mr..Jacobs' testimony in court, it became parent that this trial was never about witchcraft in the first place. This trial is a tale about greed and power, a soulless tale about people who want things that are not theirs. How can a man who can barely stand on his own two feet be accused of terrorizing Ruth Putnam? I would think that if he was under the impression of Lucifer, he would use the power to be able to stand up without any support. Mr.. Putnam is a parasite; sucking the blood out of innocent people for his own fat belly. Rut's accusations must be dealt with separately and with great care, Your Honor.Giles Corey swears to a depo sition that Putnam forced Ruth to cry witchcraft in an attempt for more land. Corey had been in court more than twenty times, winning every case, Your Honor. Surely, you can emphasize and draw the conclusion that Corey is reliable and trustworthy and that his deposition must be considered with great thoughts and wisdom. Plead with you to look at the evidence again. If you want the blood of Mr.. Jacobs on your hands, you should listen to the lies that Ruth Putnam is feeding you instigated by her father, the very greedy Mr.. Putnam.How could you not believe the words of John Proctor? Why the man with the rest name in Salem throw away his good name after claiming to be an adulterer? It is in my good opinion that Abigail Williams seeks vengeance on John Proctor for taking her innocence. Elizabeth lied to protect her husband, just like any women would lie to protect her family life, children and husband. Even someone like Goody Proctor, who has never told a lie before. This is a natural lie to tell. I beg of you, your Honor, to reconsider your decision on sending Elizabeth to the jailhouse. You must ensure that this trial is fair.Telling Proctor and Abigail to stand with their backs facing Elizabeth was not a air way to question her. You are a noble judge. We saw John Proctor break down in court and this is not the behavior of a man who is trying to deceive or undermine the court or the trial. Your Excellency, Proctor is a well-respected farmer and his wife has no mark upon her name. They are good souls who don't deserve to be hanged due to the lies of Abigail Williams and the girls. Abigail is hell-bent on seeking vengeance on Proctor. Abigail is comparable to Lucifer. She pulled the wool over your eyes , the girls and even me at the beginning.But I saw this presence and soon will you. She has deceived most people in the village including you. Can see she has played you like a violin and Your Honor , it seems you cannot hear enough of this wretched symphony. Beg o f you, see through the evil surroundings of Abigail Williams. F you kill these innocent souls, your hands will be stained blood-red. The blood of the innocent people you have killed. Your gavel , the paper you sign , the table and your soul will be stained with blood. In addition, the women we have already convicted of witchcraft are of the lowest status in Salem: a lunatic and a beggar.As the local beggar, there is not only one person in Salem who Goody Osborne has not annoyed with her requests for bread and cider. I can imagine there are a lot of people happy to see her locked up. But, consider Your Honor, does being poor equate to being a witch? Surely Lucifer would find it too easy to win the soul of a beggar! If Lucifer had taken Goody Osborne soul, why is she still poor? She is not such a fool to part with her soul for anything less than abundant money. Sarah Good, the local lunatic is in the same position- surely you see this? The local people are afraid of her trance mumblin gs and behavior.It is easy to cry witch on someone who is not in sound enough mind to defend herself. Judge Detonator, I humbly ask you to think more on these two individuals, there really is no sufficient evidence to send them to the jailhouse as they are just poor unfortunate souls. Finally, Sir, it's in my good Opinion that the accused are good people with pure souls. They are innocent and they have been caught up in a web of lies, Judge Detonator. You know as well as do that Abigail Williams and Thomas Putnam are not reliable enough to cause the deaths of innocent people.

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No matter how many mistakes you make or how slow you progress, you are still way ahead of everyone who isn’t trying. If a person wants to be a part of your life, they will make an obvious effort to do so. Think twice before reserving a space in your heart for people who do not make an effort to stay. Making one person smile can change the world – maybe not the whole world, but their world. Saying someone is ugly doesn’t make you any prettier. The only normal people you know are the ones you don’t know very well. Life is 10% of what happens to you and 90% of how you react to it. The most painful thing is losing yourself in the process of loving someone too much, and forgetting that you are special too. It’s better to be alone than to be in bad company. As we grow up, we realize it becomes less important to have more friends and more important to have real ones. Making a hundred friends is not a miracle. The miracle is to make a single friend who will stand by your side even when hundreds are against you. Giving up doesn’t always mean you’re weak, sometimes it means you are strong enough and smart enough to let go and move on. Don’t say you don’t have enough time. You have exactly the same number of hours per day that were given to Helen Keller, Pasteur, Michaelangelo, Mother Teresea, Leonardo da Vinci, Thomas Jefferson, Albert Einstein, etc†¦ If you really want to do something, you’ll find a way. If you don’t, you’ll find an excuse. Don’t choose the one who is beautiful to the world; choose the one who makes your world beautiful. Falling in love is not a choice. To stay in love is. True love isn’t about being inseparable; it’s about two people being true to each other even when they are separated. While you’re busy looking for the perfect person, you’ll probably miss the imperfect person who could make you perfectly happy. Never do something permanently foolish just because you are temporarily upset. You can learn great things from your mistakes when you aren’t busy denying them. Read The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People. In life, if you don’t risk anything, you risk everything. When you stop chasing the wrong things you give the right things a chance to catch you. Every single thing that has ever happened in your life is preparing you for a moment that is yet to come. There isn’t anything noble about being superior to another person. True nobility is in being superior to the person you once were. Trying to be someone else is a waste of the person you are. You will never become who you want to be if you keep blaming everyone else for who you are now. People are more what they hide than what they show. Sometimes people don’t notice the things others do for them until they stop doing them. Don’t listen to what people say, watch what they do. Being alone does not mean you are lonely, and being lonely does not mean you are alone. Love is not about sex, going on fancy dates, or showing off. It’s about being with a person who makes you happy in a way nobody else can. Anyone can come into your life and say how much they love you. It takes someone really special to stay in your life and show how much they love you. Burn the candles, use the nice sheets, wear the fancy lingerie. Don’t save it for a special occasion; today is special. Love and appreciate your parents. We are often so busy growing up, we forget they are also growing old. When you have to start compromising yourself and your morals for the people around you, it’s probably time to change the people around you. Learn to love yourself first, instead of loving the idea of other people loving you. When someone tells you, â€Å"You’ve changed,† it might simply be because you’ve stopped living your life their way. Someone else doesn’t have to be wrong for you to be right. Be happy. Be yourself. If others don’t like it, then let them be. Happiness is a choice. Life isn’t about pleasing everybody. When you’re up, your friends know who you are. When you’re down, you know who your friends are. Don’t look for someone who will solve all your problems; look for someone who will face them with you. If you expect the world to be fair with you because you are fair, you’re fooling yourself. That’s like expecting the lion not to eat you because you didn’t eat him. No matter how good or bad you have it, wake up each day thankful for your life. Someone somewhere else is desperately fighting for theirs. The smallest act of kindness is worth more than the grandest intention. Many people are so poor because the only thing they have is money. Learn to appreciate the things you have before time forces you appreciate the things you once had. When you choose to see the good in others, you end up finding the good in yourself. You don’t drown by falling in the water. You drown by staying there. It’s better to know and be disappointed than to never know and always wonder. There are things that we don’t want to happen but have to accept, things we don’t want to know but have to learn, and people we can’t live without but have to let go. Happiness is not determined by what’s happening around you, but rather what’s happening inside you. Most people depend on others to gain happiness, but the truth is, it always comes from within. If you tell the truth, it becomes a part of your past. If you lie, it becomes a part of your future. What you do every day matters more than what you do every once in a while. Read The Power of Habit. You can’t start the next chapter of your life if you keep re-reading your last one. Things turn out best for people who make the best out of the way things turn out. If you don’t like something, change it. If you can’t change it, change the way you think about it.

Use of ethical behavior will pay off in the long-run

Use of ethical behavior will pay off in the long-run Ethical behavior is morally accepted as being good and right in a particular situation. The society-at-large is always demanding high ethical and moral standards from organizations. Unethical behavior is always seen as a virus working on the society and eating it up. In a business organization, the top level managers have a big part to play when it comes to ethical issues. How they react when it comes to ethical dilemmas makes a big difference as to how the other employees of that organization will face the same situation. A big example is what Johnson Johnson Company executives did when the Tylenol poisoning took place. They pulled out all the stocks out of the market even thou it cost them millions of dollars, because the management knew it was the ethical thing to do. It uplifted their image amongst its customer base rather than downgrading it since the customers could see that the company had their best interests at heart. That particular reaction set a big example for other org anizations throughout the world to follow. When it comes to ethical behavior in the long run, I believe it will pay off for any organization. In todays intense business environment its more important than ever to have strong ethical programs in place. In a survey conducted by the ethics resource centre on more than 4,000 employees, one third had witnessed ethical misconduct in the past year (Flynn, 1995). Ethical standards depict behaviors morally accepted as good and right as opposed to bad or wrong in a particular setting it is particularly crucial for the business for a number of reasons. For example, murder and robbery are not only illegal but are universally regarded as wrong, while dishonesty , while not necessarily illegal, is usually thought to be immoral. They are created and adopted by people who are interested primarily in ensuring there are guidelines for behavior for the group members. For example, doctors and lawyers have ethical codes of practice which they sear to uphold as part of their professional practice. Ethics in the society carries a lot of value, so I believe that ethical behavior is what all working professionals should aim to have. However its not just the ethical attributes that the employees and organizations should have, but also the behavior they put forward with regards to those ethical issues is also important. To build a good career one should live there life by rules of ethics in order to safeguard themselves and also society as a whole. Most business experts suggest that establishing a code of conduct can help the company to behave ethically. A code of conduct is a formal document stating the principles and the ethical rules it expects the employees to follow in the organization. Ethical standards protect the business from scandals and prevent them in the future. Ethical statements imply the employees, business associates, and the larger community a framework of the companys operating principles (rules and regulations) which needs to be followed, why the company exists, what the company believes in, and how it goes about to comply with its professed beliefs. In addition, reviewing the standard operating procedures and performance measurements will ensure the business owners and managers that it is well structured and does not encourage unethical behavior. Studies has shown that organizations are now increasingly take account of ethical considerations, there has been a shift from traditional profit and free market bu siness approach to ethical approach, in favor of consumer interests. Practicing ethical behavior can develop the business to great heights. High ethical behaviors will set high standards and put the work practices of the organization to high levels. It will develop a discipline which will help your business to succeed. It will also build teamwork amongst employees. They will show respect for the organization, its culture and top level management. It will build trust and confidence among colleagues. Also organizations which practice ethical standards can attract good short and long term investment. Investors will definitely see it more viable to associate itself which businesses who put ethical issues to high regards hence uplifting the investors image in the society and the business environment. Most investors believe that it is important for companies to consider ethical and social issues alongside financial issues in order for them to be sustainable and remain competitive in the long run. Ethical investors are essentially concerned with how profit is made and looks to maximize profit at the same time trying to minimize and avoid negative social effects. On the positive side, the public will begin to recognize and to honor individual companies for their contributions to solving most obdurate problems. This puts companies in a very strong situation since all the stake holders like shareholders, government, employees, suppliers and local communities benefit Ethical investments is one way of responding to issues of social responsibility in business decisions and activities and avoiding being self serving. Socially responsible factors in areas of public concern include the environment, sustainability, and globalization. Behaving ethically also improves the quality of work life and enhances the role of every employer in creating an environment where employee pride blossoms and theft losses disappear. There is reduced corruption when employees are treated with fairness and are valued as individuals, as they take pride in their organization. Positive results are achieved when employees are given a basis for trust and respect to live by. If employees believe all are held to similar high standards, they likely will feel better about themselves, their colleagues, their organization and behave ethically when dealing with customers and business associates. Research over the years have proved that consumers are used to buying products from companies that have public recognition, a company record or being promoted. Enhancing customer loyalty to the brand is probably the single most powerful incentive for convincing companies to adopt ethics as a way of life. Another advantage of behaving ethically is that it promotes better staff retention and attraction; good organizations cannot function without good people. Ethical organizations have increased commitment by employees as good employees want to work with responsible and ethical employers. When a company fails to be a good employer they lose good staff and it reduces the possibility of attracting good new-comers. Many business want employees to behave ethically because such a reputation is good for business which in turn can mean larger profits. How one behaves in the workplace helps them in building a good reputation and praises over the years to come. Similarly, encouraging employees to act ethically can save money by reducing employee theft, down time and lawsuits. It is noticed that that when employees dont show respect for the company and colleagues, it encourage many forms of theft such unnecessary phone calls on company account and taking office supplies home. It is important that employees have a clear understanding of their organizations ethical standards and a feeling of management support for acting within those standards. Teaching ethics to an employee is not always effective. Management must set examples by their personal alignment with ethical standards and principles. Thus, Managers have to always keep in mind that leading by example is the first step in developing a culture of ethical behavior in the organization. PART TWO; Q2) Within the business context, businesses are expected to have good ethical values and act socially responsible. The problem is that the ethics of a business is a mixture of the individual sets of ethics. This is why it is important to have good individuals as employees. it is also equally important that when you go to work somewhere that you feel like you share the values of those you work with. Ethic is not just talking about the right thing. It is doing what is the right in every decision that is made. Based on the above observation discuss the impact on society that ethical leaders can make As the world business platform is growing rapidly, more business leaders and are now waking up to the reality of social responsibility and good organizational ethics. The opinion of the society is re-shaping expectations and standards on how leaders should perform with regards to the general public. Injustice around the world is becoming more visible and less acceptable and behavior of leaders is becoming more transparent every day. Leaders now have real incentives when they do the right thing, but they do have disincentives for doing things that are unacceptable in todays world. Leaders show ethical behaviors when they do what is morally right, and good, and when they help to elevate followers moral awareness. Ethical leaders must generate the right conditions and organizational culture for the development of ethical behavior amongst society members. Every community has leaders to look after its interests and protects its rights. However in todays world, many people do not have faith in leaders and hold them responsible for many of their problems. Ethical leaders should be people-oriented and always aware of how their decisions affect others. They serve the society with compassionate interests. This becomes the only way ethical leaders are able to motivate followers and put needs and interest of group before their own. When these leaders act ethically than the people in the society will follow them. The respect and trust the people put in their leaders will lead them to follow the same values that the leaders do. The leaders have a big responsibility on their shoulders when it comes to guiding the society to follow these ethical principles. They act as role models for the society. What they do in their day to day life becomes the corner stone for the followers. Leaders also play an important role in social responsibility.   The keys issues involved are the health and safety of every employee. Great leadership includes establishing health and safety as a value and affirming that safety by allowing employees adequate time to prepare for evacuation. Organizations blossom when leaders take responsibility to ensure that works are performed ethically. Ethical behavior should start at the top level management, so that employees also ensure ethical standards are maintained. However if leaders want to be more effective than they need to have good employees working for them in the first place. These employees should be able to carry on the leaders values and follow the same principles when the leader is not around. They should be people who can be trusted enough to be given such a big responsibility. They should be able to promote right actions to inspire the performance of individuals and the culture as a whole.  They Leaders contribute to the success of the society and influence the choices made by the members and businesses in carrying out day-to-day activities. To conclude, every society needs leaders who take personal responsibility for their decisions. People should be able to trust their leaders and see the difference between good and bad.

The World Today As A Unipolar Society

The World Today As A Unipolar Society The world is a complex and dynamic with almost endless combinations of events leading to different outcomes. Sovereign states, multinational corporations, NGOs, militias, terrorists, regional and global organisations, media outlets and rogue states affect global relations. Environmental changes, natural disasters, regional and inter-state conflict, economic instability, migration and demographic changes are a fraction of the events that add uncertainty to the path of future global relations. So can we neatly categorise this multifarious world? Gordon Allport said categories are nouns that cut slices through our environment. This applies to all things, not simply to a persons nationality or skin colour. From birth we learn to categorise the world, to drop items or situations into buckets that broadly meet its features. This helps us process complex information without being utterly overwhelmed. Regarding world order; no two situations are alike but we are able to apply the basic constructs to a polar system. There are those who argue for unipolarity, multipolarity and nonpolarity. This essay will assess each of the arguments in turn and, in conclusion, you will be presented with an opinion based on those arguments. In 1939 the international system was multipolar with France, Germany, Italy, Japan, USSR, UK and US as the major global powers. This balance of power led to a total war between two alliances with two superpowers emerging, the USSR and US. From 1945 these two superpowers were engaged in a political and military standoff, the Cold War, which despite its deadly potential delivered a degree of stability to world order. The collapse of the USSR in 1991 left a period of uncertainty that saw the US take the role as global hegemon. This power shift has been ongoing since well before WWII, even before Carl von Clausewitzs days in the multipolar early 19th century, and above all this demonstrates the dynamic and ever shifting nature of the international system of power. Unipolarity can be defined as a system in which a single power is geopolitically preponderant because its capabilities are potent enough to preclude the formation of an overwhelming balancing coalition against it  [1]  . To suggest that a unipolar state must be capable of achieving all its goals, everywhere, by itself is nonsense  [2]  . If this were the case there would never have been a unipolar state on the global stage. There have, of course, been unipolar powers; America is the most recent and the best example but the Roman Empire, the Mongol Empire and Chinas Han Dynasty are other examples. There is no stomach for anything other than US hegemony on Capitol Hill. The US has dominated since the end of the Cold War with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. An entire generation of Americans has grown up knowing nothing apart from US hegemony and they are not keen to lose it. Following the end of the Iraq War there was no flurry of US innovation to try and prevent future Iraq wars; there was instead a shift in the doctrinal approach of the Pentagon towards counter insurgency and more money spent on equipping the military to fare even better in future Iraq wars. Key factors defining superpower status are military, economic, political and technological. An economically strong US has built a military, unmatched in terms of the size of its technologically advanced forces. The US Navys fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 navies combined.  [3]  China and India have larger armed forces than the US but the US has more forces stationed overseas (460,000 is 146 countries). It has the most technologically advanced weaponry in the world, spending almost as much on defence as all other nations combined  [4]  . This ability to project power globally is significantly unmatched by any power in the world and this gives the US a more prominent place at the international table. Of the four key factors, military power is the most relevant to maintaining US global hegemony but even US culture has migrated around the globe. MTV, CNN, Coca Cola, McDonalds, Disney and Hollywood are but a few US brand names in what is known in some camps as th e McDomination Effect. The US enjoys a unique geographical advantage, having allies on each of its borders; Canada, Mexico (an uneasy ally but a strong trading partner), and the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Other states tend to have their ascent to superpower status blocked by their neighbours. The huge margin between the US and its nearest competitors may have reduced in recent years but it remains. Furthermore there is no other single country that can compete with the US in all areas of power. Yale historian Paul Kennedy claimed the US would suffer from imperial overstretch but, in such awe of US success in Afghanistan in 2002, he wrote nothing has ever existed like this disparity of power; nothing. The notion of overstretch is largely ill founded as the potential final nail in the coffin for the US; unlike Great Britain, France and Spain before it, the US does not crave territory, almost before they put boots on foreign soil they are looking for an exit strategy  [5]  . The commonly held view is that unipolarity is unstable, mainly due to the tendency of other states to seek counterbalance and inevitably cause conflict. In this case, however, there are no power enemies that are seeking to directly counter the US. Indeed, following the September 11 attacks India, Pakistan, Russia and even China have revised their foreign policies regarding the US. Even North Korea may be entering back into dialogue in April with the US over dismantling its nuclear programme. Which other countries enjoy the ability to disregard the international system without retribution? Not only disregard the system but draw their allies along with them, such as with the recent conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. Cases of torture of terror suspects, the last invasion of Iraq, not signing up to the Ottowa Treaty (despite being a P5 member of the UN Security Council), the Highway of Death massacre in Iraq; the list is extensive but the point remains that the US remains at the head of the international table despite multiple infringements of international law or, in the case of the Ottowa Treaty, setting a poor example to the international community. Charles Krauthammer coined the Unipolar Moment in the early 1990s and in 2002 he suggested that moment had become the Unipolar Era. Since 1990 however, the US has been at war in the Middle East, Somalia, Haiti and Bosnia in the main. It has suffered a disastrous presidency under Bush and financial meltdown following the collapse of the sub-prime market. In addition it has suffered a major terrorist attack, a catastrophic diversion of attention from Afghanistan to Iraq regarding WMDs and has suffered a moral own goal by practising torture and violating human rights, specifically the authorised use of waterboarding by CIA personnel on US terror suspects. Financially the country is a shell following Bushs presidency; he took office with $120 billion in reserve and left a deficit of $1.2 trillion eight years later. In every dimension other than military power the distribution of power is shifting, moving away from U.S. dominance. That does not mean we are entering an anti-American world but we are moving into a post-American world, one defined and directed from many places and by many people  [6]  . Many argue, most notably Richard Haass, that the unipolar moment is over, that sovereign states have lost the monopoly on power in a world now dominated by dozens of state and non-state actors, each with a significant amount of power. In todays world, states are challenged from above, by regional and global organisations (UN, NATO, IMF and WTO), from below by militias and terrorist groups (drug cartels, Al Qaeda, CIRA and Hezbollah) and from the side by NGOs (Amnesty International, the Red Cross and Greenpeace) and the media. The six major world powers are joined by global, regional and functional organisations that wield tremendous power; consider OPEC for example. In this nonpolar environment, mechanisms for providing solutions to world problems are becoming multilateral in nature and not state driven. Recent meetings at the UN have been held including government departments, UN agencies, NGOs, pharmaceutical companies, foundations, think tanks and universities  [7]  . Military might does not equate to effect. The events of 11 Sep 01 demonstrate that a small organisation with minimal funding and manpower can strike a devastating blow to a powerful state. The events since have shown that, even with the full prosecution of its power, the US has been unable to bring the war on terror to a satisfactory conclusion. Power and influence have become less synonymous in recent years due, in part, to the decline of the US on the world stage but also to the growth in stature of other states and non-state actors. The increase in production and consequential consumption of fossil fuels has seen substantial funds flow to oil producing countries. These countries have enjoyed the benefits of these profits and are now rising in power and influence themselves. The success of the US machine has contributed to its own downfall. The dollar is in decline, worldwide talks are taking place regarding the cessation of trading in the dollar for oil; already many global exchan ge holdings are now in other currencies.  [8]  The emerging BRIC and Middle Eastern countries are discussing alternative currencies for international reserve. Globalisation is a major factor in the global diffusion of power. In both the physical and the virtual world, borders have become more porous over the last 20 years and therefore less susceptible to state control. In the same way that states have increased in their ability to succeed financially and technologically, non-state actors have matured in the same way. This, coupled with more porous borders in a smaller world has enabled far more actors to exert their influence around the globe. Terrorist groups communicate worldwide via internet, move funds electronically via internet and move members internationally via a high tech worldwide air bridge. Media groups such as CNN and Al Jazeera distribute current footage of war zones across the world that has not been subject to government censorship; many non-western countries receive instant footage in their native language, not subject to western control. US primacy has been challenged and found wanting. The dollar is in decline and countries are regularly able to resist US petitions (Pakistan, Iran, North Korea, Venezuela and Zimbabwe most recently). Other states have grown significantly (including China, Brazil, India, Russia and Saudi Arabia) and there has been a great deal of backlash to Americanism. Despite the decline of US hegemony, no state has stepped up to the plate to take on the role of hegemon. This, combined with globalisation, has led to a unipolar world. So what of multipolarity? Irans rise to nuclear power seems inevitable; supported by both Russia and China, financially and in the UN, the US appears powerless to halt Irans nuclear progress. Irans accumulation of wealth shows no sign of waning, especially as it holds three fifths of the worlds oil reserves and two fifths of the worlds natural gas reserves. Russia has made a massive comeback under Putin. It holds half of the worlds supply of nuclear weapons and has the third largest gold and foreign currency reserve in the world. There is heavy reliance on Russian oil and gas supplies across the continent and, with the financial crisis pushing investors to liquidate assets into oil, gold and other commodities, Russia benefited greatly in recent times. China has also rapidly risen as a diplomatic and economic power; at current rates the country will lead the US in GDP by 2050. Despite its unusual peaceful rise to power, compared with Britain, the US, Japan, Germany and Russia before it, China may be prepared to support Russias objection to a possible US anti-missile shield in Europe by use of military power. China has been one of the first to move into Africa, capitalising on untouched oil and mineral reserves. Also there has been a direct challenge to the US might via cyberspace; Chinese hackers have repeatedly compromised Pentagon computer security, rendering entire systems inoperative. India is another rising power and a nuclear power. It too has very good relations with Russia and China, who has given financial support. Unfortunately India suffers with a similar problem to the EU in that it is a multi-faceted entity that faces challenges from within regarding a single voice and unity in aim. Further to this it is hampered in its quest for hegemony in South Asia by Pakistan who, although significantly weaker in conventional terms, possesses a nuclear capability. Brazil has made a meteoric rise in power in recent times. Already a mineral rich country it has recently discovered extensive oil reserves offshore and has signed a multi-billion dollar military technology sharing deal with France. It sits under the US security umbrella and has no serious threats from its neighbours and does not seek to be a military power but an economic one. Vast swathes of land have been made fertile and the country now leads the world in the exports of many foodstuffs and is the second highest producer of ethanol in a world looking for alternative fuels. The Muslim world is increasing in power across the world. Birth rates in Muslim countries are increasing and the availability of medical services is improving this gives rise to longer life expectancy coupled with a larger young population. With the concentration of fossil fuels in Middle Eastern countries and the financial benefits that brings we can expect to see increase in the effect of the Muslim world on the west. This may take the form of states increasing in production and becoming more powerful but there is a chance this could mean increased migration to the west. The US remains primus inter pares but is no longer hegemon. It now relies on more imports and is able to export less (exports of goods and services grew by 12.0% in 2008 to $1.84 trillion, while imports increased 7.4% to $2.52 trillion  [9]  ). Meanwhile other countries are growing at increasing rates (China grew 9.6% in 2008 compared with 1.1% in the US  [10]  ). Chinas GDP growth may be increasing but it is unlikely that spending on defence will come close to the US. The poor majority Chinese population will continue to sap economic growth. EU GDP may be in excess of the US and its armed forces may be great in number but the union is not yet truly unified and the region is suffering an ageing population. Japan too is suffering an ageing and shrinking population. India is making huge advances in its economy but suffers from a bureaucratic system with little in the way of infrastructure. Russia could be seen as a possible contender again, although it is challenged from within by a declining population (falling at about 0.5% per year since 1991  [11]  and internal challenges to its government. The most recent example of nonpolarity is Iran. With the surge in oil prices Iran has accumulated wealth and power and is now seemingly aspiring to join the nuclear family. Despite its protestations, the US is unable to turn the tide without significant help from other states and organisations to assist with sanctions or to block access to nuclear technology and materials.  [12]  Iran now has the ability to exert influence over OPEC, which in turn could significantly affect the US. There is no doubt that the US still leads the world in the power stakes but its place at the top has become more unsteady in recent years. Iraq and Afghanistan have cost a considerable amount to fund and have turned opinion against them around the globe. US intervention in Iraq and Afghanistan has seen its national debt rise to over $250 billion; this coupled with the recent sub-prime market crash has seen the US economy weakened considerably. Hence the accumulation of wealth elsewhere in the world has a more marked effect. GDP growth differentials are reducing. The EU already beats the US GDP by some considerable margin and both Japan and China are closing the gap The world today But polarity is not a binary phenomenon. The world will not stay unipolar for decades and then suddenly, one afternoon, become multipolar  [13]  . The US remains primus inter pares more powerful in more areas than any other country. This does not mean, however, that it remains at the top of a unipolar system; Iran is a case in point. Success in the US has fed many other countries around the world, particularly oil producing states. China has benefited from US trade and with all While the concept of categorisation discussed at the beginning of this essay has clear benefits, we cannot simply assign one of the given categories to the world today. Unipolarity has been a reality since the collapse of the Soviet Union but the unipolar moment is truly over. The US does not have the ability to act with impunity or support any longer. There is a definite case of imperial overstretch, given its financial position, with the war on terror. Heavy economic and financial reliance on China sits paradoxically with the US position regarding Russia, Iran, India (opposed as it was to the Indian nuclear testing programme) and, more irritatingly, Chinese cyber war. There may currently be no state that is directly challenging the US on the global stage but the door of opportunity is certainly open for others to pose a threat to the US if conflict is provoked. While it is true that globalisation has increased the power of non-state actors to have an effect on the world stage, they are only able to apply pressure to sovereign states. Ultimately the sovereign states retain the real power, the combination of military might, geopolitical influence, economic power and technological advancement. Other actors play a key role in making the system work and providing solutions to global problems (global warming, financial crises, conflict prevention and so on) but the state remains king on the world stage. Multipolarity is re-emerging as nation states amass wealth, technology and increase cooperation through globalisation. There is possibility of conflict arising from this situation, especially with the Middle Eastern situation and with various states opposed to the US and its foreign policy. The reality would appear to be that we are in a transition phase between two elements of polarity, those being the unipolar world of the post Cold War era and the multipolar world of the future.

Commercial Identity :: Essays Papers

Commercial Identity This is one of the best essays I ever wrote. It was also the easiest and quickest to write because I had fun doing it. It was amazing how much my writing improved when I decided to have fun with it. "Forced" writing never turns out well no matter how skilled the writer is. Although girls may tell you they don't judge a guy based on the brand of beer he drinks, they are lying! Bud Light's new spot shows two guys fail miserably when they offer two good looking (surprise, surprise) ladies the wrong beer. The music stops, the pool ball that was about to fall in the corner pocket comes to rest on the edge. "On second thought, how about a Bud Light," says the more studly one. The music is rockin' again. The eight ball catches a drift and falls into the pocket, and those lucky ladies have found some happenin' guys who drink the coolest beer. The moral of the story is "buy a Bud and be a stud." However, that is not the only message in this commercial. The mere fact that commercials like this are successful indicates that they influence people's identity in society. That is a pretty deep and somewhat abstract statement to make about a commercial with a one sentence plot: "Guy gets girl because guy drinks a really cool beer." However, the statement is true and can easily be supported. Advertising today plays an unusual role in society in that it both reflects and effects our identities. That 30 second spot told me that I want to be just like those cooler-than-cool-Bud-Light-drinkin' guys. What did they look like? How did they dress? Those 30 seconds leave the viewer a mental picture of what cool is and what they want to be like. Just turn the T.V. on to Sunday afternoon football and you will see a dozen other commercials that support this definition of cool. Cool is being handsome. Cool is having a chick at your side and, most importantly, a beer in hand. (Bud Light, Coors, Miller--It doesn't matter, they all get the ladies.) Advertisers have certain expectations about their target audience. That is, they assume they know exactly who they are and who they want to be. Commercials try to reflect this on television to greater appeal to a their target audience. For example, football fans like beer, women, and tough cars (not necessarily in that order). Commercial Identity :: Essays Papers Commercial Identity This is one of the best essays I ever wrote. It was also the easiest and quickest to write because I had fun doing it. It was amazing how much my writing improved when I decided to have fun with it. "Forced" writing never turns out well no matter how skilled the writer is. Although girls may tell you they don't judge a guy based on the brand of beer he drinks, they are lying! Bud Light's new spot shows two guys fail miserably when they offer two good looking (surprise, surprise) ladies the wrong beer. The music stops, the pool ball that was about to fall in the corner pocket comes to rest on the edge. "On second thought, how about a Bud Light," says the more studly one. The music is rockin' again. The eight ball catches a drift and falls into the pocket, and those lucky ladies have found some happenin' guys who drink the coolest beer. The moral of the story is "buy a Bud and be a stud." However, that is not the only message in this commercial. The mere fact that commercials like this are successful indicates that they influence people's identity in society. That is a pretty deep and somewhat abstract statement to make about a commercial with a one sentence plot: "Guy gets girl because guy drinks a really cool beer." However, the statement is true and can easily be supported. Advertising today plays an unusual role in society in that it both reflects and effects our identities. That 30 second spot told me that I want to be just like those cooler-than-cool-Bud-Light-drinkin' guys. What did they look like? How did they dress? Those 30 seconds leave the viewer a mental picture of what cool is and what they want to be like. Just turn the T.V. on to Sunday afternoon football and you will see a dozen other commercials that support this definition of cool. Cool is being handsome. Cool is having a chick at your side and, most importantly, a beer in hand. (Bud Light, Coors, Miller--It doesn't matter, they all get the ladies.) Advertisers have certain expectations about their target audience. That is, they assume they know exactly who they are and who they want to be. Commercials try to reflect this on television to greater appeal to a their target audience. For example, football fans like beer, women, and tough cars (not necessarily in that order).

Affirmative Action :: Affirmative Action Essays

For the past several years the argument over affirmative action has been a highly debated topic. The issue at hand is whether or not affirmative action is reverse discrimination or not. Affirmative action by definition "means taking positive steps to end discrimination, to prevent its recurrence, and to create new opportunities that were previously denied to qualified women and people of color," (Work & Family). The reason that affirmative action is so controversial is because Americans can't decide what they want. "Poll after poll concludes that Americans firmly support "‘affirmative action'" to create opportunities for women and people of color, while they vigorously oppose "quotas'" and "‘preferences'" for unqualified candidates," (Work & Family). Which is odd considering that the same "affirmative action" that people support does in fact, in some cases, put unqualified personnel in undeserving positi ons. For those people who believe affirmative action works they generally are only focusing on the diversity affirmative action has brought to jobs. Their arguments consist of wanting to see more ethnic and gender diversity in jobs that are usually being worked by white males. To many of these people quality is sometimes put aside for quantity and diversity. The strongest argument that the people who are in support of affirmative action is that having more gender and ethnical diversity brings more to the work place. This argument is very good and very accurate. Having different people in different jobs helps a company to work and receive input from all sorts of different perspectives. Which leads to a better understanding of what a wider cross-section of the target market wants. On the other hand the people who support affirmative action also give some not so strong arguments. The one that stands out the most is that companies don't try and fill quotas in their gender and ethnical h iring. Instead it is done entirely on skill alone. This is their weakest and most disputed argument. Especially when in many cases if two potential employees are close in skill the job will more than likely go to the potential employee who is a minority. As in the case of Paul Johnson versus Diane Joyce. Both had comparable skills, but even though Paul Johnson's oral interview was scored higher than Diane Joyce it was her that was selected for the job. "The Court upheld the county's use of Ms. Joyce's gender as a positive factor in choosing between these similarly-qualified candidates," (Work & Family). Affirmative Action :: Affirmative Action Essays For the past several years the argument over affirmative action has been a highly debated topic. The issue at hand is whether or not affirmative action is reverse discrimination or not. Affirmative action by definition "means taking positive steps to end discrimination, to prevent its recurrence, and to create new opportunities that were previously denied to qualified women and people of color," (Work & Family). The reason that affirmative action is so controversial is because Americans can't decide what they want. "Poll after poll concludes that Americans firmly support "‘affirmative action'" to create opportunities for women and people of color, while they vigorously oppose "quotas'" and "‘preferences'" for unqualified candidates," (Work & Family). Which is odd considering that the same "affirmative action" that people support does in fact, in some cases, put unqualified personnel in undeserving positi ons. For those people who believe affirmative action works they generally are only focusing on the diversity affirmative action has brought to jobs. Their arguments consist of wanting to see more ethnic and gender diversity in jobs that are usually being worked by white males. To many of these people quality is sometimes put aside for quantity and diversity. The strongest argument that the people who are in support of affirmative action is that having more gender and ethnical diversity brings more to the work place. This argument is very good and very accurate. Having different people in different jobs helps a company to work and receive input from all sorts of different perspectives. Which leads to a better understanding of what a wider cross-section of the target market wants. On the other hand the people who support affirmative action also give some not so strong arguments. The one that stands out the most is that companies don't try and fill quotas in their gender and ethnical h iring. Instead it is done entirely on skill alone. This is their weakest and most disputed argument. Especially when in many cases if two potential employees are close in skill the job will more than likely go to the potential employee who is a minority. As in the case of Paul Johnson versus Diane Joyce. Both had comparable skills, but even though Paul Johnson's oral interview was scored higher than Diane Joyce it was her that was selected for the job. "The Court upheld the county's use of Ms. Joyce's gender as a positive factor in choosing between these similarly-qualified candidates," (Work & Family).

The body of the Indian Woman: A tool of nationalistic discourse Essay

The body of the Indian Woman: A tool of nationalistic discourse The genre of Bollywood film has recently become a popular means of entertainment for the non-resident Indian as well as the western audience. The vibrant color, spontaneous dance numbers, and other alluring factors may have contributed in the popularity of Bollywood films. However, for the NRI, Bollywood films are mean of a connection to the motherland; it brings a sense of nostalgia through cultural and tradition practices. In Chutney Popcorn and Bride and Prejudice, we see how these cultural practices and tradition are preserved by using the woman’s body. A woman’s body is a tool of producing the norms of the Indian national discourses; yet, the woman’s body can be utilized to resist such norms. Norms of rituals, engagement, marriage, procreation, and creation of family are tools that are utilized by Indian society to maintain the heteronormative discourses of the nation. To understand how these film produce and contest such norms, we must look with a critical eye of how the Indian woman’s body is utilize to achieve these goals. Scholars such as Anupama Arora and Christine Geraghty have analyzed Chutney Popcorn and Bride and Prejudice, respectively by viewing the Indian woman’s body as a tool of reproducing and contesting heteronormative discourses of the Indian nation. By following the technique used by Arora and Geraghty, we view these films with a critical eye. First, we must acknowledge that Chutney Popcorn and Bride and Prejudice are different films that tackle similar issues. Chutney Popcorn is an independently made film about a Lesbian NRI living in New York. While Bride and Prejudice is a multimillion dollar film, created by renowned director Gurinder Ch... ...agent of their own will; meaning, they made decisions for themselves without â€Å"falling under pressure.† Reena is the lesbian woman who is the agent of her own will that is not constrained by expectations and culture; however, in the process we see her yearning for acceptance by her mother. Her pregnancy both symbolizes resistance and conformity for pregnancy is a gendered expectation for women; but the fact that she is a lesbian complicates things. Her sexual orientation provides a means of resistance to the idea of a heterosexual family. Lalita on the other hand, follows the norms of Indian culture yet she becomes the agent of her own will by choosing to love Darcy, a white man over Mr. Kholi an American NRI. The ability of both characters to be the agent of their own provides a tool of halting the use of a woman’s body as a tool of promoting oppressive norms.

Causes of Prejudice

Prejudice is an opinion that is not based on actual evidence or experience. In â€Å"Causes of Prejudice,† Vincent Parillo describes the psychological and sociological reasons of prejudice. Among these causes, frustration is defined to produce a prejudicial attitude towards others. Parillo explains in his work that throughout history, minority groups have been used as scapegoats to take the blame for certain events. He clarifies that scapegoating is the act of blaming others for an incident that is not their fault.This idea is also visible in the novel To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, in the art where a lawyer named Atticus tries to prove an African American innocent who has been falsely charged with raping a white woman. Therefore, both Parillo's â€Å"Causes of Prejudice† and Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird support that frustration is a cause of prejudice because of an increase in aggression towards a scapegoat. To begin with, frustration is caused by relative deprivation, which is the lack of resources in an individual's environment when compared to others.This results in aggression towards a scapegoat in order to relieve this tension. â€Å"Frustrated people ay easily strike out against the perceived cause of their frustration. However, this reaction may not be possible because the true source of the frustration is often too nebulous to be identified or too powerful to act against† (Parillo 583). His view is also seen in To Kill a Mockingbird, when Mayella Ewell claims Tom Robinson has raped her. Atticus tries to prove to the Jury that Tom Robinson in fact did not rape Mayella and that she, a white woman, kissed Tom, a black man.Mayella is an Ewell; a very poor family in the town of Maycomb and therefore she has to live through tough onditions which include living behind the garbage dump, barely having any money to support her dad and seven siblings, as well as being beaten by her own father. Most importantly, she is frustrated t hat she always feels dissatisfied with her life since she was never able to experience any happiness by being isolated from the rest of the world. Therefore, she tries to at least kiss a black man to feel some sense of happiness.When she realizes it is condemned by society, her frustration increases partly because society is not allowing her to have a small amount of happiness, and o she shows her aggression by blaming Tom Robinson for raping her. In addition, aggression resulted from frustration is pinpointed towards scapegoats because they share similar characteristics of being vulnerable to blame. â€Å"The group must be (1) highly visible in physical appearance or observable customs and acations; (2) not strong enough to strike back; (3) situated within easy access of the dominant group .. † (Parillo 584). To Kill a Mockingbird takes place in southern Alabama in the 1930's. This was the time period where prejudice against African Americans was present. Segregation was pre sent because having white skin was een to be better than having black skin. This simple difference in skin color resulted in an unfair treatment of African Americans. Separate bathrooms, drinking fountains, churches, and schools resulted for African Americans and whites. Also, since whites felt that the blacks were inferior to them, they tended to assume all blacks were unintelligent.When Mayella copes with her frustration of being isolated from the rest of the world by blaming Tom Robinson, the court looks at his skin color instead of the evidence given tor this case. Even though Atticus provides plenty ot evidence that roves that it was impossible for Tom to commit the rape of Mayella, Tom is still found guilty because even if Mayella is part of the lower class of Maycomb, she is still a white woman, making her superior to Tom Robinson.It is evident that frustration plays an important role in determining prejudicial attitudes. Both the novel To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee and â€Å"Causes of Prejudice† by Vincent Parillo, agree that frustration is caused by relative deprivation and when aggression forms, the blame is placed on scapegoats. These scapegoats share similar characteristics which allow them to be vulnerable to the blame that falls upon them.

Evaluate the case for cutting public expenditure rather Essay

A fiscal deficit is when a government’s total expenditures exceed the tax revenues that it generates. A budget deficit can be cut by either reducing public expenditure or raising taxes. In this essay, I am going to analyse the benefits and costs of increasing tax rates to reduce fiscal deficits instead of cutting government expenditure. First of all, if the government decides to cut current public expenditure, it will lead to a reduced quantity and quality of public goods and service. For example, closing NHS direct call centres down which results in lower living standard. Moreover as the spending in sectors such as healthcare and education is cut, these services may need to redundant staff to stay within their new budgets. For instance if the NHS’s budget is cut they will lay-off additional staff. Those public sector workers may find it difficult to find a new job in private sector if they are not competitive enough to compete with other people in the labour market, leading to higher unemployment conflicting with the government macroeconomic objective of low unemployment rate. Also higher unemployment will mean less income tax revenue, lower VAT receipts, higher welfare payments, as well as lower standards of living. If the government is to cut capital expenditure this is the type of expenditure that expands LRAS. It might not cause serious problems in short run, however in long run less spending on for example education and healthcare will result in a less educated and skilled workforce and a less healthy workforce. The negative effects of inadequate skilled human capital in the long run include lower productivity which makes the economy less competitive internationally compared with for example Germany. It in turn leads to deterioration on balance of payment, economic stagnant growth and inflationary pressure as labour costs increase. Thirdly, government spending is an injection into the circular flow of income. A decrease in the government spending will incur negative wealth effect and therefore lead to weaker economic growth. In addition, the  government spending is one of the components of aggregate demand, consequently, lower GDP. In a demand-deficient recession, consumption and investment tend to decrease due to lower income and revenue, the (X-M) component tends to level off or worsen in short run, which makes government spending an essential device to stimulate the economy. Therefore a decrease in the government spending will cause an even deeper recession and a larger budget deficit. Last but not least, a decrease in government spending could mean worse income distribution compared with increasing progressive tax. This is because transfer payment forms almost a third of the governments budgets and so by cutting expenditure it is very likely that it will also be cut making the poor poorer and widening the gap. On the other hand, taxes could be increased progressively by for example increasing marginal income taxes so that the people with high income pay more than the poor narrowing the gap between. However, there are also some drawbacks associated with raising taxes. Tax is a form of leakage from the circular flow of income leading to negative multiplier effect. If the government increases income tax rates, it might create disincentives to work. It is because when income tax increases, the opportunity cost for leisure time decreases; and people will have to work longer hours to earn the same disposable income. Some people may therefore prefer claiming Jobseekers’ Allowance instead of working. If the corporation tax is to be increased, there will be disincentive for firms to locate in the UK, leading to less investment and corporation tax revenues. Additionally, an increase in the National Insurance may discourage firms taking more employers as the NI is paid per employee. Secondly, if the government raises higher income by increasing indirect taxes for example VAT, it may also have problems. It shifts the SRAS curve to the left as the cost of production increases. And it may therefore push up the price level and reduce the level of output. Moreover, indirect taxes are regressive taxes, which impose a greater burden relative to the incomes on the poor than on the rich. Thirdly, as the public sector is basically non-profit, their allocation of resources believed to be less efficient than the profit-making private sector firms. Therefore reducing public expenditure may lead to greater efficiency and productivity by for example removing unnecessary layer of management hence more effective communication and better service provided by the public sector. Last but not least, the choices between the two possible ways and their effects depend on the macroeconomic situation- for example the unemployment rate and the size of the public sector. If the size of the public sector is small, the adjustment on government spending might not be very large and the effect on budget deficit wouldn’t be significant. If the unemployment rate is high, for example 26% general rate and 50% youth rate in Spain, making it very hard to raise taxes. Apparently, both reducing government spending and increasing tax rates will lead to a lower AD, but they will have different other effects. Therefore the choice between this two may depend on macroeconomic situation and what the government is focusing on achieving. VICKKIE

Multicultural education Essay

From its early beginnings in the 1960s, multicultural education has since been in a constant state of evolution both in theory and in practice (Gorski & Covert 1996). In the last four decades, it has undergone repeated transformation, focusing and conceptualization as challenges emerge one after the other from a rapidly changing population demographics and a significant growth in diverse multicultural groups. The result is a multitude of conceptualizations reflecting different foci but which basically share the same ideals rooted upon the need for transformation or change. Gorski (2000) defines multicultural education as a â€Å"progressive approach for transforming education that holistically critiques and addresses current shortcomings, failings, and discriminatory practices in education†. These shared ideals that include social justice, equity in educational opportunities, and the dedication to help students reach their full potential as learners and as socially conscious and active individuals provide the basis for understanding multicultural education. It is a process of action, through which adults achieve clarity about their condition in this society and ways to change it (Phillips, 1988). Multicultural education acknowledges that schools, among all other institutions, play a pivotal role in building the foundation and acting as major influencing factor for the transformation of society and the elimination of oppression and injustice. The realities of the times clearly speak for the growing importance and relevance of multicultural education. Cultural diversity in schools is indeed one considerable challenge but like any other, it can be a most welcome opportunity. History has shown us that nations are enriched by the ethnic, cultural, and language diversity among its citizens (Banks, 2001). Schools play a significant part in finding ways to harness and redirect cultural diversity into creating unity and progress in schools and ultimately to society in general. References: Banks, J. A. (April 2001). Diversity within unity: Essential principles for teaching and learning in a multicultural society. New Horizons for Learning. Retrieved on May 28, 2009 from http://www. newhorizons. org/strategies/multicultural/banks. htm Gorski, P. & Covert, B. (1996; 2000). Defining multicultural education. Retrieved on May 28, 2009 from http://www. edchange. org/multicultural/define_old. html Phillips, C. B. (1988). Nurturing diversity for today’s children and tomorrow’s leaders. Young Children: 43(2).

New Hoarding Technique for Handling Disconnection in Mobile

Literature Survey On New Hoarding Technique for Handling Disconnection in Mobile Submitted by Mayur Rajesh Bajaj (IWC2011021) In Partial fulfilment for the award of the degree Of Master of Technology In INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (Specialization: Wireless Communication and Computing) [pic] Under the Guidance of Dr. Manish Kumar INDIAN INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, ALLAHABAD (A University Established under sec. 3 of UGC Act, 1956 vide Notification no. F. 9-4/99-U. 3 Dated 04. 08. 2000 of the Govt. of India) (A Centre of Excellence in Information Technology Established by Govt. of India) Table of Contents [pic] 1.Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 2. Related Work and Motivation 1. Coda: The Pioneering System for Hoarding†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 2. Hoarding Based on Data Mining Techniques†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 3. Hoarding Techniques Based on Program Trees†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 8 4. Hoarding in a Distributed Environment†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 9 5.Hoarding content for mobile learning†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 10 6. Mobile Clients Through Cooperative Hoarding†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 10 7. Comparative Discussion previous techniques†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 11 3. Problem Definition†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 11 4. New Approach Suggested 1. Zipf’s Law †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2 2. Object Hotspot Prediction Model†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 13 5. Schedule of Work†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 13 6. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 13 References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 14 . Introduction Mobile devices are the computers which are having wireless communication capabilities to access global data services from any location while roaming. Now a day’s mobile devices are supporting applications such as multimedia, World Wide Web and other high profile applications which demands continuous connections and Mobile devices are lacking here. However, mobile devices with wireless communication are frequently disconnected from the network due to the cost of wireless communication or the unavailability of the wireless network.Disconnection period of mobile device from its network is called as offline period. Such offline periods may appear for different reasons – intentional (e. g. , the available connection is too expensive for the user) or unintentional (e. g. , lack of infrastructure at a given time and location). During offline periods the user can only access materials located on the device’s local memory. Mobile systems typically have a relatively small amount of memory, which is often not enough to store all the needed data for ongoing activities to continue.In such a case, a decision should be taken on which part of the data has to be cached. Often we cannot count on the user’s own judgement of what he/she will need and prefetch. Rather, in our opinion, some sort of automatic prefetching would be desirable. Uninterrupted operation in offline mode will be in high demand and the mobile computer systems should provide support for it. Seamless disconnection can be achieved by loading the files that a user will access in the future from the network to the local storage. This preparation process for disconnected operation is called hoarding.Few of the parameters which complicate the hoarding process are prediction of future access pattern of the user, handling of hoard miss, limited local hoard memory and unpredictable disconnections and reconnection, activities on hoarded object at other clients, the asymmetry of communications bandwidth in downstream and upstream. An important point is to measure the quality of the hoarding and to try to improve it continuously. An often used metric in the evaluation of caching proxies is the hit ratio. Hit ratio is calculated by dividing the number of by the total number of uploaded predictions.It is a good measure for hoarding systems, though a better measure is the miss ratio – a percentage of accesses for which the cache is ineffective. In this work we have given brief overview of the techniques proposed in earlier days and also given the idea for the new hoarding technique. 2. Related Work and Motivation Before the early 1990’s, there was little research on hoarding. Since then, however, interest has increased dramatically among research scientists and professors around the globe and many techniques have been developed. Here we have listed few of the techniques and also will discuss them in brief. Coda: The Pioneering System for Hoarding †¢ Hoarding Based on Data Mining Techniques ? SEER Hoarding System (inspired by clustering technique) ? Association Rule-Based Techniques ? Hoarding Based on Hyper Graph ? Probability Graph Based Technique †¢ Hoarding Techniques Based on Program Trees †¢ Hoarding in a Distributed Environment †¢ Hoarding content for mobile learning †¢ Mobile Clients Through Cooperative Hoarding 2. 1 Coda Coda is a distributed file system based on client–server architecture, where there are many clients and a comparatively smaller number of servers.It is the first system that enabled users to work in disconnected mode. The concept of hoarding was introduced by the Coda group as a means of enabling disconnected operation. Disconnections in Coda are assumed to occur involuntarily due to network failures or voluntarily due to the detachment of a mobile client from the network. Voluntary and involuntary disconnections are handled the same way. The cache manager of Coda, called Venus, is designed to work in disconnected mode by serving client requests from the cache when the mobile client is detached from the network.Requests to the files that are not in the cache during disconnection are reflected to the client as failures. The hoarding system of Coda lets users select the files that they will hopefully need in the future. This information is used to decide what to load to the local storage. For disconnected operation, files are loaded to the client local storage, because the master copies are kept at stationary servers, there is the notion of replication and how to manage locks on the local copies. When the disconnection is voluntary, Coda handles this case by obtaining exclusive locks to files.However in case of involuntary disconnection, the system should defer the conflicting lock requests for an object to the reconnection time, which may not be predictable. The cache management system of Coda, called Venus, diff ers from the previous ones in that it incorporates user profiles in addition to the recent reference history. Each workstation maintains a list of pathnames, called the hoard database. These pathnames specify objects of interest to the user at the workstation that maintains the hoard database. Users can modify the hoard database via scripts, which are called hoard profiles.Multiple hoard profiles can be defined by the same user and a combination of these profiles can be used to modify the hoard database. Venus provides the user with an option to specify two time points during which all file references will be recorded. Due to the limitations of the mobile cache space, users can also specify priorities to provide the hoarding system with hints about the importance of file objects. Precedence is given to high priority objects during hoarding where the priority of an object is a combination of the user specified priority and a parameter indicating how recently it was accessed.Venus per forms a hierarchical cache management, which means that a directory is not purged unless all the subdirectories are already purged. In summary, the Coda hoarding mechanism is based on a least recently used (LRU) policy plus the user specified profiles to update the hoard data-base, which is used for cache management. It relies on user intervention to determine what to hoard in addition to the objects already maintained by the cache management system. In that respect, it can be classified as semi-automated.Researchers developed more advanced techniques with the aim of minimizing the user intervention in determining the set of objects to be hoarded. These techniques will be discussed in the following sections. 2. 2 Hoarding based on Data mining Techniques Knowing the interested pattern from the large collection of data is the basis of data mining. In the earlier history of hoarding related works researchers have applied many different data mining techniques in this arena of mobile hoa rding. Mainly clustering and association rule mining techniques were adopted from data mining domain. . 2. 1 SEER Hoarding System To automate the hoarding process, author developed a hoarding system called SEER that can make hoarding decisions without user intervention. The basic idea in SEER is to organize users’ activities as projects in order to provide more accurate hoarding decisions. A distance measure needs to be defined in order to apply clustering algorithms to group related files. SEER uses the notion of semantic distance based on the file reference behaviour of the files for which semantic distance needs to be calculated.Once the semantic distance between pairs of files are calculated, a standard clustering algorithm is used to partition the files into clusters. The developers of SEER also employ some filters based on the file type and other conventions introduced by the specific file system they assumed. The basic architecture of the SEER predictive hoarding syste m is provided in figure 1. The observer monitors user behaviour (i. e. , which files are accessed at what time) and feeds the cleaned and formatted access paths to the correlator, which then generates the distances among files in terms of user access behaviour.The distances are called the semantic distance and they are fed to the cluster generator that groups the objects with respect to their distances. The aim of clustering is, given a set of objects and a similarity or distance matrix that describes the pairwise distances or similarities among a set of objects, to group the objects that are close to each other or similar to each other. Calculation of the distances between files is done by looking at the high-level file references, such as open or status inquiry, as opposed to individual reads and writes, which are claimed to obscure the process of distance calculation. pic] Figure 1. Architecture of the SEER Predictive Hoarding System The semantic distance between two file referen ces is based on the number of intervening references to other files in between these two file references. This definition is further enhanced by the notion of lifetime semantic distance. Lifetime semantic distance between an open file A and an open file B is the number of intervening file opens (including the open of B). If the file A is closed before B is opened, then the distance is defined to be zero.The lifetime semantic distance relates two references to different files; however it needs to be somehow converted to a distance measure between two files instead of file references. Geometric mean of the file references is calculated to obtain the distance between the two files. Keeping all pairwise distances takes a lot of space. Therefore, only the distances among the closest files are represented (closest is determined by a parameter K, K closest pairs for each file are considered). The developers of SEER used a variation of an agglomerative (i. e. bottom up) clustering algorithm called k nearest neighbour, which has a low time and space complexity. An agglomerative clustering algorithm first considers individual objects as clusters and tries to combine them to form larger clusters until all the objects are grouped into one single cluster. The algorithm they used is based on merging sub clusters into larger clusters if they share at least kn neighbours. If the two files share less than kn close files but more than kf, then the files in the clusters are replicated to form overlapping clusters instead of being merged.SEER works on top of a user level replication system such as Coda and leaves the hoarding process to the underlying file system after providing the hoard database. The files that are in the same project as the file that is currently in use are included to the set of files to be hoarded. During disconnected operation, hoard misses are calculated to give a feedback to the system. 2. 2. 2 Association Rule-Based Techniques Association rule overview: Let I=i1,i2†¦.. im be a set of literals, called items and D be a set of transactions, such that ?T ? D; T? I. A transaction T contains a set of items X if X? T. An association rule is denoted by an implication of the form X ? Y, where X? I, Y ? I, and X ? Y = NULL. A rule X ? Y is said to hold in the transaction set D with confidence c if c% of the transactions in D that contain X also contain Y. The rule X? Y has support sin the transaction set D if s% of transactions in D contains X? Y. The problem of mining association rules is to find all the association rules that have a support and a confidence greater than user-specified thresholds.The thresholds for confidence and support are called minconf and minsup respectively. In Association Rule Based Technique for hoarding, authors described an application independent and generic technique for determining what should be hoarded prior to disconnection. This method utilizes association rules that are extracted by data mining techni ques for determining the set of items that should be hoarded to a mobile computer prior to disconnection. The proposed method was implemented and tested on synthetic data to estimate its effectiveness.The process of automated hoarding via association rules can be summarized as follows: Step 1: Requests of the client in the current session are used through an inferencing mechanism to construct the candidate set prior to disconnection. Step 2: Candidate set is pruned to form the hoard set. Step 3: Hoard set is loaded to the client cache. The need to have separate steps for constructing the candidate set and the hoard set arises from the fact that users also move from one machine to another that may have lower resources.The construction of the hoard set must adapt to such potential changes. Construction of candidate set: An inferencing mechanism is used to construct the candidate set of data items that are of interest to the client to be disconnected. The candidate set of the client is constructed in two steps; 1. The inferencing mechanism finds the association rules whose heads (i. e. , left hand side) match with the client’s requests in the current session, 2. The tails (i. e. , right hand side) of the matching rules are collected into the candidate set.Construction of Hoard set: The client that issued the hoard request has limited re-sources. The storage resource is of particular importance for hoarding since we have a limited space to load the candidate set. Therefore, the candidate set obtained in the first phase of the hoarding set should shrink to the hoard set so that it fits the client cache. Each data item in the candidate set is associated with a priority. These priorities together with various heuristics must be incorporated for determining the hoard set. The data items are used to sort the rules in descending order of priorities.The hoard set is constructed out of the data items with the highest priority in the candidate set just enough to fil l the cache. 3. Hoarding Based on Hyper Graph Hyper graph based approach presents a kind of low-cost automatic data hoarding technology based on rules and hyper graph model. It first uses data mining technology to extract sequence relevance rules of data from the broadcasting history, and then formulates hyper graph model, sorting the data into clusters through hyper graph partitioning methods and sorting them topologically.Finally, according to the data invalid window and the current visit record, data in corresponding clusters will be collected. Hyper graph model: Hyper graph model is defined as H = (V, E) where V={v1 ,v2 ,†¦ ,vn } is the vertices collection of hyper graph, and E={e1 ,e2 ,†¦ ,em } is super-edge collection of hyper graph (there supposed to be m super-edges in total). Hyper graph is an extension of graph, in which each super-edge can be connected with two or more vertices. Super-edge is the collection of a group of vertices in hyper graph, and superedge ei = {vi1, vi2, †¦ inj} in which vi1,vi2 ,†¦ ,vin ? V . In this model, vertices collection V corresponds to the history of broadcast data, in which each point corresponds to a broadcast data item, and each super-edge corresponds to a sequence model. Sequence model shows the orders of data items. A sequence model in size K can be expressed as p = . Use of hyper graph in hoarding are discussed in paper in details. 4. Probability Graph Based Technique This paper proposed a low-cost automated hoarding for mobile computing.Advantage of this approach is it does not explore application specific heuristics, such as the directory structure or file extension. The property of application independence makes this algorithm applicable to any predicative caching system to address data hoarding. The most distinguished feature of this algorithm is that it uses probability graph to represent data relationships and to update it at the same time when user’s request is processed. Before d isconnection, the cluster algorithm divides data into groups.Then, those groups with the highest priority are selected into hoard set until the cache is filled up. Analysis shows that the overhead of this algorithm is much lower than previous algorithms. Probability Graph: An important parameter used to construct probability graph is look-ahead period. It is a fixed number of file references that defines what it means for one file to be opened ‘soon’ after another. In other words, for a specific file reference, only references within the look-ahead period are considered related. In fact, look-ahead period is an approximate method to avoid traversing the whole trace.Unlike constructing probability graph from local file systems, in the context of mobile data access, data set is dynamically collected from remote data requests. Thus, we implemented a variation of algorithm used to construct probability graph, as illustrated in Figure 2. [pic] Figure 2. Constructing the prob ability graph The basic idea is simple: If a reference to data object A follows the reference to data object B within the look-ahead period, then the weight of directed arc from B to A is added by one. The look-ahead period affects absolute weight of arcs.Larger look-ahead period produces more arcs and larger weight. A ’s dependency to B is represented by the ratio of weight of arc from B to A divided by the total weight of arcs leaving B. Clustering: Before constructing the final hoard set, data objects are clustered into groups based on dependency among data objects. The main objective of the clustering phase is to guarantee closely related data objects are partitioned into the same group. In the successive selecting phase, data objects are selected into hoard set at the unit of group. This design provides more continuity in user operation when disconnected.Selecting Groups: The following four kinds of heuristic information are applicable for calculating priority for a grou p: †¢ Total access time of all data objects; †¢ Average access time of data objects; †¢ Access time of the start data object; †¢ Average access time per byte. 2. Hoarding Techniques Based on Program Trees A hoarding tool based on program execution trees was developed by author running under OS/2 operating system. Their method is based on analyzing program executions to construct a profile for each program depending on the files the program accesses.They proposed a solution to the hoarding problem in case of informed disconnections: the user tells the mobile computer that there is an imminent disconnection to fill the cache intelligently so that the files that will be used in the future are already there in the cache when needed. [pic] Figure 3. Sample program Tree This hoarding mechanism lets the user make the hoarding decision. They present the hoarding options to the user through a graphical user interface and working sets of applications are captured automatic ally. The working sets are detected by logging the user file accesses at the background.During hoarding, this log is analyzed and trees that represent the program executions are constructed. A node denotes a file and a link from a parent to one of its child nodes tells us that either the child is opened by the parent or it is executed by the parent. Roots of the trees are the initial processes. Program trees are constructed for each execution of a program, which captures multiple contexts of executions of the same program. This has the advantage that the whole context is captured from different execution times of the program.Finally, hoarding is performed by taking the union of all the execution trees of a running program. A sample program tree is provided in Figure 3. Due to the storage limitations of mobile computers, the number of trees that can be stored for a program is limited to 15 LRU program trees. Hoarding through program trees can be thought of as a generalization of a pr o-gram execution by looking at the past behaviour. The hoarding mechanism is enhanced by letting the user rule out the data files. Data files are automatically detected using three complementary heuristics: 1.Looking at the filename extensions and observing the filename conventions in OS/2, files can be distinguished as executable, batch files, or data files. 2. Directory inferencing is used as a spatial locality heuristic. The files that differ in the top level directory in their pathnames from the running program are assumed to be data files, but the programs in the same top level directory are assumed to be part of the same program. 3. Modification times of the files are used as the final heuristic to deter-mine the type of a file. Data files are assumed to be modified more recently and frequently than the executables.They devised a parametric model for evaluation, which is based on recency and frequency. 3. Hoarding in a Distributed Environment Another hoarding mechanism, which was presented for specific application in distributed system, assumes a specific architecture, such as infostations where mobile users are connected to the network via wireless local area networks (LANs) that offer a high bandwidth, which is a cheaper option compared to wireless wide area networks (WANs). The hoarding process is handed over to the infostations in that model and it is assumed that what the user wants to access is location-dependent.Hoarding is proposed to fill the gap between the capacity and cost trade-off between wireless WANS and wireless LANs. The infestations do the hoarding and when a request is not found in the infostation, then WAN will be used to get the data item. The hoarding decision is based on the user access patterns coupled with that user’s location information. Items frequently accessed by mobile users are recorded together with spatial information (i. e. , where they were accessed). A region is divided into hoarding areas and each infostation is responsible with one hoarding area. 4. Hoarding content for mobile learningHoarding in the learning context is the process for automatically choosing what part of the overall learning content should be prepared and made available for the next offline period of a learner equipped with a mobile device. We can split the hoarding process into few steps that we will discuss further in more details: 1. Predict the entry point of the current user for his/her next offline learning session. We call it the ‘starting point’. 2. Create a ‘candidate for caching’ set. This set should contain related documents (objects) that the user might access from the starting point we have selected. 3.Prune the set – the objects that probably will not be needed by the user should be excluded from the candidate set, thus making it smaller. This should be done based on user behaviour observations and domain knowledge. 4. Find the priority to all objects still in the hoarding set after pruning. Using all the knowledge available about the user and the current learning domain, every object left in the hoarding set should be assigned a priority value. The priority should mean how important the object is for the next user session and should be higher if we suppose that there is a higher probability that an object will be used sooner. . Sort the objects based on their priority, and produce an ordered list of objects. 6. Cache, starting from the beginning of the list (thus putting in the device cache those objects with higher priority) and continue with the ones with smaller weights until available memory is filled in. 5. Mobile Clients Through Cooperative Hoarding Recent research has shown that mobile users often move in groups. Cooperative hoarding takes advantage of the fact that even when disconnected from the network, clients may still be able to communicate with each other in ad-hoc mode.By performing hoarding cooperatively, clients can share their hoar d content during disconnections to achieve higher data accessibility and reduce the risk of critical cache misses. Two cooperative hoarding schemes, GGH and CAP, have been proposed. GGH improves hoard performance by al-lowing clients to take advantage of what their peers have hoarded when making their own hoarding decisions. On the other hand, CAP selects the best client in the group to Hoard each object to maximise the number of unique objects hoarded and minimise access cost. Simulation results show that compare to existing schemes.Details of GGH and CAP are given in paper. 2. 7 Comparative Discussion previous techniques The hoarding techniques discussed above vary depending on the target system and it is difficult to make an objective comparative evaluation of their effectiveness. We can classify the hoarding techniques as being auto-mated or not. In that respect, being the initial hoarding system, Coda is semiautomated and it needs human intervention for the hoarding decision. T he rest of the hoarding techniques discussed are fully automated; how-ever, user supervision is always desirable to give a final touch to the files to be hoarded.Among the automated hoarding techniques, SEER and program tree-based ones assume a specific operating system and use semantic information about the files, such as the naming conventions, or file reference types and so on to construct the hoard set. However, the ones based on association rule mining and infostation environment do not make any operating system specific assumptions. Therefore, they can be used in generic systems. Coda handles both voluntary and involuntary disconnections well.The infostation-based hoarding approach is also inherently designed for involuntary disconnections, because hoarding is done during the user passing in the range of the infostation area. However, the time of disconnection can be predicted with a certain error bound by considering the direction and the speed of the moving client predicting when the user will go out of range. The program tree-based methods are specifically designed for previously informed disconnections. The scenario assumed in the case of infostations is a distributed wire-less infrastructure, which makes it unique among the hoarding mechanisms.This case is especially important in today’s world where peer-to-peer systems are becoming more and more popular. 3. Problem Definition The New Technique that we have planned to design for hoarding will be used on Mobile Network. Goals that we have set are a. Finding a solution having optimal hit ratio in the hoard at local node. b. Technique should not have greater time complexity because we don’t have much time for performing hoarding operation after the knowledge of disconnection. c. Optimal utilization of hoard memory. d. Support for both intentional and unintentional disconnection. e.Proper handling of conflicts in hoarded objects upon reconnection. However, our priority will be for hit rati o than the other goals that we have set. We will take certain assumptions about for other issues if we find any scope of improvement in hit ratio. 4. New Approach 4. 1 Zipf’s Law It is a mathematical tool to describe the relationship between words in a text and their frequencies. Considering a long text and assigning ranks to all words by the frequencies in this text, the occurrence probability P (i) of the word with rank i satisfies the formula below, which is known as Zipf first law, where C is a constant.P (i) = [pic] †¦. (1) This formula is further extended into a more generalized form, known as Zipf-like law. P (i) = [pic]†¦. (2) Obviously, [pic]†¦. (3) Now According to (2) and (3), we have C[pic] [pic] Our work is to dynamically calculate for different streams and then according to above Formula (2) and (4), the hotspot can be predicted based on the ranking of an object. 4. 2 Object Hotspot Prediction Model 4. 2. 1 Hotspot Classification We classify hotsp ot into two categories: â€Å"permanent hotspot† and â€Å"stage hotspot†. Permanent hotspot is an object which is frequently accessed regularly.Stage hotspot can be further divided into two types: â€Å"cyclical hotspot† and â€Å"sudden hotspot†. Cyclical hotspot is an object which becomes popular periodically. If an object is considered as a focus suddenly, it is a sudden hotspot. 4. 2. 2. Hotspot Identification Hotspots in distributed stream-processing storage systems can be identified via a ranking policy (sorted by access frequencies of objects). In our design, the hotspot objects will be inserted into a hotspot queue. The maximum queue length is determined by the cache size and the average size of hotspot Objects.If an object’s rank is smaller than the maximum hotspot queue length (in this case, the rank is high), it will be considered as â€Å"hotspot† in our system. Otherwise it will be considered as â€Å"non hotspot†. And t he objects in the queue will be handled by hotspot cache strategy. 4. 2. 3 Hotspot Prediction This is our main section of interest, here we will try to determine the prediction model for hoard content with optimal hoard hit ratio. 5. Schedule of Work |Work |Scheduled Period |Remarks | |Studying revious work on Hoarding |July – Aug 2012 |Complete | |Identifying Problem |Sept 2012 |Complete | |Innovating New Approach |Oct 2012 |Ongoing | |Integrating with Mobile Arena as solution to Hoarding |Nov- Dec 2012 |- | |Simulation And Testing |Jan 2013 |- | |Optimization |Feb 2013 |- | |Simulation And Testing |Mar 2013 |- | |Writing Thesis Work / Journal Publication |Apr –May 2013 |- | 6. Conclusion In this literature survey we have discussed previous related work on hoarding. We have also given the requirements for the new technique that is planned to be design.Also we are suggesting a new approach that is coming under the category of Hoarding with Data Mining Techniques. Recen t studies have shown that the use of proposed technique i. e. Zipfs-Like law for caching over the web contents have improved the hit ratio to a greater extent. Here with this work we are expecting improvements in hit ratio of the local hoard. 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